Adaptación lingüística y psicométrica del Cuestionario de Estilos Atributivos Académicos (EAT-A) / Linguistic and psychometric adaptation of the Academic Attributional Style Questionnaire (EAT-A)

Resumen Antecedentes las atribuciones que los estudiantes hacen de sus resultados académicos pueden impactar en su rendimiento académico. Sin embargo, la medición de las atribuciones en este ámbito con frecuencia carece de evidencias de validez y confiabilidad. Objetivos: analizar la estructura factorial, validez convergente y confiabilidad de la adaptación para estudiantes mexicanos del Cuestionario de Estilos Atributivos Académicos (EAT-A). Método: participaron 557 estudiantes de ambos sexos, entre 15 y 19 años, de la Ciudad de México. Mediante el análisis factorial confirmatorio se sometió a prueba una estructura del EATA con siete factores y otra con cuatro que no distingue las atribuciones de éxito y fracaso. Se analizó la validez convergente, la consistencia interna y la confiabilidad compuesta del instrumento. Resultados: solo la estructura con siete factores presentó ajuste adecuado, con los índices RMSEA = .046; SRMR = .053; CFI = .961; TLI = .952 y χ²/gl = 2.72. El EAT-A muestra evidencias de validez convergente con la motivación de logro y de confiabilidad. Conclusión: El EAT-A se muestra como un instrumento de medida breve y fácil aplicación que dispone de evidencias de validez y estimación de confiabilidad para examinar las atribuciones que los estudiantes hacen de sus calificaciones.

Abstract Background Students' attributions of their grades may affect their academic performance. However, lack of evidence supporting the validity and reliability of the instruments measuring attribution is a major concern. Objective: To analyze the factor structure, convergent validity and reliability of the Academic Attributional Style Questionnaire adapted to Mexican high school students (EAT-A). Method: The sample consisted of 557 Mexico City students of both sexes aged between 15 and 19. Using a confirmatory factor analysis for both success and failure attributions, a 7-factor structure and a 4-factor structure of the EAT-A were tested. The instrument's convergent validity, internal consistency and reliability were examined. Results: Only the 7-factor structure showed adequate fit indices: RMSEA = .046; SRMR = .053; CFI = .961; TLI = .952 and χ²/gl = 2.72. In addition, the EAT-A evidenced convergent validity concerning success and reliability motivation. Conclusion: The EAT-A is a quick- and easyto- administer instrument for measuring students' attributions of their grades in a reliable and valid manner.

Validez de constructo de la versión corta de la Escala de Desregulación Emocional para niños y adolescentes / Construct Validity of the Emotional Dysregulation Scale, Short Form, for Children and Adolescents / Validade de constructo da versão curta da Escada de Desregulação Emocional para crianças e adolescentes

Objetivo. Someter a prueba el modelo unidimensional de la Escala de Desregulación Emocional, versión corta (EDS-short) para niños y adolescentes; examinar su invariancia entre sexos y edades; e indagar acerca de su validez convergente. Método. Mediante un muestreo intencional participaron, en un estudio y su réplica, 407 y 546 menores, respectivamente, quienes respondieron la EDS-short y la subescala de afecto negativo de la Positive and Negative Affect Scale para niños. Se empleó el análisis factorial confirmatorio para analizar la estructura unidimensional de la EDS-short y se examinó la asociación entre la desregulación emocional y el afecto negativo por medio de la correlación de Pearson. Resultados. En ambos estudios, el modelo unidimensional mostró un ajuste adecuado (x² / gl <= 2.76; RMSEA < 0.06; CFI = 0.99; IFI = 0.99; NFI = 0.98; NNFI = 0.99), así como invariancia entre mujeres y hombres y entre niños y adolescentes (ACFI = 0.00). Hubo asociación positiva y moderada entre la desregulación emocional y el afecto negativo (r > 0.57). Conclusión. La EDS-short posee un modelo de medida unidimensional y validez convergente. Se recomienda como una medida viable de la desregulación emocional de niños y de adolescentes.

Objective. The aims of this research were to test the unidimensional model of the Emotional Dysregulation Scale, short form (EDS-short), for children and adolescents, to examine its invariance across sex and age, and to investigate its convergent validity. Method. By intentional sampling, 407 and 546 young people answered the EDS-short and the Negative Affect subscale of the Positive and Negative Affect Scale for Children in a first study and its replication, respectively. Confirmatory factor analysis was used to analyze the unidimensional structure of the EDS-short, and Pearson correlation was used to examine the association between emotion dysregulation and negative affect. Results. In both studies the unidimensional model showed an adequate fit (x² / gl < 2.76; RMSEA < 0.06; CFI = 0.99; IFI = 0.99; NFI = 0.98; NNFI = 0.99), as well as invariance between girls and boys, and children and adolescents (ACFI = 0.00). A positive and moderate relation between emotion dysregulation and negative affect was found (r > 0.57). Conclusion. The EDS-short has a unidimensional measurement model and convergent validity. It is recommended as a viable measure of child and adolescent emotional dysregulation.

Escopo. Os propósitos de esta pesquisa foram someter a prova o modelo unidimensional da Escada de Desregulação Emocional, versão curta (EDS-short), para crianças e adolescentes, examinar sua não variação entre sexos e idades e indagar sobre sua validade convergente. Metodologia. Mediante uma amostra intencional participaram, em um estudo e sua réplica, 407 e 546 menores, respetivamente, os quais responderam a EDS-short e a sub-escada de afeto negativo da Positive and Negative Affect Scale para crianças. Foi empregada a análise fatorial confirmatória para analisar a estrutura unidimensional da EDS-short e foi examinada a associação entre a desregulação emocional e o afeto negativo por médio da correlação de Pearson. Resultados. Em ambos os estudos o modelo unidimensional mostrou um ajuste adequado (x² / gl 2.76; RMSEA < 0.06; CFI = 0.99; IFI = 0.99; NFI = 0.98; NNFI = 0.99), assim como uma não variação entre homens e mulheres e entre crianças e adolescentes (ACFI = 0.00). Existiu uma associação positiva e moderada entre a desregulação emocional e o afeto negativo (r > 0.57). Conclusão. A EDS-short tem um modelo de medida unidimensional e validade convergente. É recomendada como uma medida viável da desregulação emocional de crianças e adolescentes.

Consistencia interna y validez de criterio de la versión mexicana del Child Behavior Checklist 1. 5-5 (CBCL/1.5-5) / Internal consistency and criterion validity and reliability of the Mexican Version of the Child Behavior Checklist 1. 5-5 (CBCL/1.5-5)

Objetivo: Investigar la consistencia interna y la validez de la versión mexicana de la lista de síntomas de niños de 1,5 a 5 años de edad del Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL/1.5-5) que mide la psicopatología más común en niños preescolares en el contexto clínico y epidemiológico. Pacientes y método: Diseño transversal, comparativo, en una muestra de 438 padres de 2 grupos: clínico-psiquiátrico (n = 62) y comunitario (n = 376). Se aplicó el instrumento CBCL/1,5-5 adaptado al lenguaje español coloquial mexicano. Para el análisis estadístico se utilizó el coeficiente alfa de Cronbach, prueba de Feldt y correlación de Pearson. Resultados: La consistencia interna para las subescalas fue elevada para problemas totales α = 0,95, internalizados α = 0,89, externalizados α = 0,91. El test-retest mediante el coeficiente de correlación intraclase fue mayor a 0,95 para las subescalas de problemas internalizados, externalizados y totales. La curva de Receiver Operating Characteristic, para el criterio de los grupos referido-clínicamente frente a no-referido para la escala total de problemas ≥ 24 resultó en un área bajo la curva 0,77, especificidad 0,73 y sensibilidad 0,70. Conclusiones: El CBCL/1,5-5/versión mexicana es un instrumento válido y confiable.

Objective: To investigate the validity and internal consistency of the Mexican version of the CBCL/1.5-5 that assesses the most common psychopathology in pre-school children in clinical and epidemiological settings. Patients and method: A total of 438 parents from two groups, clinical-psychiatric (N= 62) and community (N= 376) completed the CBCL/1.5-5/Mexican version. Results: The internal consistency was high for total problems α=0.95, and internalized α=0.89 and externalized α=0.91 subscales. The test re-test (one week) using the intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) was ≥ 0.95 for the internalized, externalized, and total problems subscales. The ROC curve for the criterion status of clinically-referred vs. non-referred using the total problems scale ≥ 24 resulted in an AUC (area under curve) of 0.77, a specificity 0.73, and a sensitivity of 0.70. Conclusions: The CBCL/1.5-5/Mexican version is a reliable and valid tool.

[Internal consistency and criterion validity and reliability of the Mexican Version of the Child Behavior Checklist 1.5-5 (CBCL/1.5-5)]. / Consistencia interna y validez de criterio de la versión mexicana del Child Behavior Checklist 1.5-5 (CBCL/1.5-5).

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the validity and internal consistency of the Mexican version of the CBCL/1.5 -5 that assesses the most common psychopathology in pre-school children in clinical and epidemiological settings. PATIENTS AND METHOD: A total of 438 parents from two groups, clinical-psychiatric (N= 62) and community (N= 376) completed the CBCL/1.5-5/Mexican version. RESULTS: The internal consistency was high for total problems α=0.95, and internalized α=0.89 and externalized α=0.91 subscales. The test re-test (one week) using the intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) was ≥ 0.95 for the internalized, externalized, and total problems subscales. The ROC curve for the criterion status of clinically-referred vs. non-referred using the total problems scale ≥ 24 resulted in an AUC (area under curve) of 0.77, a specificity 0.73, and a sensitivity of 0.70. CONCLUSIONS: The CBCL/1.5 -5/Mexican version is a reliable and valid tool.

Insatisfacción corporal, autoestima y depresión en niñas con obesidad / Body dissatisfaction, self-esteem, and depression in girls with obesity

Resumen: El propósito de la presente investigación fue estudiar la posible asociación entre los constructos insatisfacción corporal, autoestima y depresión en niñas con obesidad. Participaron 231 preadolescentes de entre 10 y 13 años de edad de la Ciudad de México, a quienes se clasificó en los grupos obesidad, sobrepeso y peso normal para el primer análisis, y en 4 grupos de acuerdo con su índice de masa corporal y sus niveles de insatisfacción corporal para el segundo análisis. Las participantes respondieron el Cuestionario de imagen corporal BSQ-16, la Prueba de autoestima infantil y la Escala de depresión del Centro de Estudios Epidemiológicos. Por medio de análisis de varianza se encontró que las niñas con sobrepeso y aquellas con obesidad presentaron más insatisfacción corporal que sus pares con peso normal. Las niñas de cualquier peso y mayor insatisfacción corporal mostraron menor autoestima y más síntomas de depresión que aquellas con insatisfacción corporal no elevada. La obesidad se asoció con la insatisfacción corporal de las preadolescentes, y solo se relacionó con su autoestima y depresión cuando existieron niveles altos de insatisfacción corporal. Sin embargo, la insatisfacción corporal no medió la relación entre la obesidad y la autoestima, ni entre la obesidad y la depresión.

Abstract: The purpose of this research was to study the potential association between the constructs body dissatisfaction, self-esteem and depression in girls with obesity. Participants were 231 preadolescents aged 10 to 13 years from Mexico City, who were ranked into the Obesity, Overweight and Normal Weight groups for the first analysis, and into four groups according to their body mass index and levels of body dissatisfaction for the second analysis. Participants completed the Body Shape Questionnaire-16, the Child Self-Esteem Test and the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale. Through analysis of variance, girls with overweight and those with obesity reported more body dissatisfaction than their peers with normal weight. Girls with any weight and higher levels of body dissatisfaction showed lower self-esteem and more symptoms of depression than those with no-high body dissatisfaction. Obesity was associated to body dissatisfaction in female preteens, and only when there were high levels of body dissatisfaction, obesity was also related to girls' self-esteem and depression. However, body dissatisfaction did not mediate the relationship between obesity and self-esteem, neither between obesity and depression.

Validez de constructo del Inventario de Depresión de Beck II para adolescentes / Construct validity of the Beck Depression Inventory II in adolescents

Son pocos los estudios que han analizado el modelo teórico de la depresión mediante el Inventario de Depresión de Beck II (BDI-II) en adolescentes hispanohablantes. Esta investigación se planteó dos propósitos: 1) indagar el ajuste de dos modelos factoriales en adolescentes mexicanos de población general del BDI-II, el unidimensional y el original de Beck et al. (1996) que propone los factores cognitivo-afectivo y somático-vegetativo y 2) examinar la invarianza entre sexos del modelo con mejor ajuste. Participaron en dos estudios 1010 y 610 adolescentes, respectivamente, quienes cumplimentaron el BDI-II. Mediante AFC se sometió a prueba las dos estructuras factoriales y, por medio de AFC multigrupo, se realizó el análisis de invarianza entre sexos. Los resultados revelaron la superioridad del modelo de dos factores en ambos estudios, sin hallar diferencias entre mujeres y hombres. Estos hallazgos arrojan evidencia en favor de la teoría de la depresión de Beck y de la validez de constructo del BDI-II en adolescentes.

Few studies have analyzed theoretical model of depression through the Beck Depression Inventory II (BDI-II) in Spanish-speaking adolescents. This research had two aims: 1) to know the fit of two BDI-II factor models in community Mexican adolescents, the one-dimension model and the Beck et al. (1996)'s original model posing the Cognitive-Affective and Somatic-Vegetative factors, and 2) to examine model invariance across sexes with the best-fitting model. In two studies, 1010 and 610 adolescents participated, respectively, who completed the BDI-II. Through CFA the two factor structures were tested and, by means of multi-group CFA, invariance analysis across sexes was performed. Results revealed superiority of the two-factor model in both studies, without differences between women and men. These findings lead to evidence for Beck's theory of depression and construct validity of the BDI-II in adolescents.

High and Low Trait Anger, Angry Thoughts, and the Recognition of Anger Problems.

This research had two goals: (1) it tested hypotheses of the State-Trait Model of anger, and (2) it explored characteristics that may distinguish individuals with high trait anger who recognize problems with their anger from those who do not recognize anger problems. Regarding the first goal, findings supported three hypotheses tested. In particular, compared to those low in trait anger, individuals with high trait anger reported: (a) more intense anger (intensity hypothesis), p < .001, effect size (η(2)) = .109; (b) more thoughts involving pejorative labeling/denigration, p < .001, η(2) = .280, thoughts of revenge, p < .001, η(2) = .170, more outward, negative anger expression (anger-out), p < .001, η(2) = .229, and more physically aggressive expression, p < .001, η(2) = .046-.123, (aggression hypothesis); and (c) more anger suppression (anger-in), p < .001, η(2) = .231, and fewer thoughts of self-control, p < .001, η(2) = .088, and behavioral efforts to control angry feelings (anger control-in), p < .001, η(2) = .116, and behavior (anger control-out), p < .001, η(2) = .260 (reduced positive coping hypothesis). For the second goal we employed two types of individuals, both with high trait anger: those who identified anger as a personal problem and wanted help, and those who did not identify anger as a personal issue. As a result, compared to those who did not report anger problems, those who reported anger problems demonstrated a higher overall propensity to experience anger (i.e., higher trait anger), p < .01, η(2) = .028, greater anger suppression and harboring grudges (anger-in), p < .001, η(2) = .035, fewer thoughts of self-control, p < .05, η(2) = .015, and attempts to control their angry feelings (anger-control-in), p < .05, η(2) = .016, and behavior (anger-control-out), p < .001, η(2) = .054. Gender was not associated with trait anger or anger problem recognition. Findings were discussed in terms of State-Trait Theory and implications for anger interventions.

High and low trait anger, angry thoughts, and the recognition of anger problems

This research had two goals: (1) it tested hypotheses of the State-Trait Model of anger, and (2) it explored characteristics that may distinguish individuals with high trait anger who recognize problems with their anger from those who do not recognize anger problems. Regarding the first goal, findings supported three hypotheses tested. In particular, compared to those low in trait anger, individuals with high trait anger reported: (a) more intense anger (intensity hypothesis), p < .001, effect size (η2) = .109; (b) more thoughts involving pejorative labeling/denigration, p < .001, η2 = .280, thoughts of revenge, p < .001, η2 = .170, more outward, negative anger expression (anger-out), p < .001, η2 = .229, and more physically aggressive expression, p < .001, η2 = .046-.123, (aggression hypothesis); and (c) more anger suppression (anger-in), p < .001, η2 = .231, and fewer thoughts of self-control, p < .001, η2 = .088, and behavioral efforts to control angry feelings (anger control-in), p < .001, η2 = .116, and behavior (anger control-out), p < .001, η2 = .260 (reduced positive coping hypothesis). For the second goal we employed two types of individuals, both with high trait anger: those who identified anger as a personal problem and wanted help, and those who did not identify anger as a personal issue. As a result, compared to those who did not report anger problems, those who reported anger problems demonstrated a higher overall propensity to experience anger (i.e., higher trait anger), p < .01, η2 = .028, greater anger suppression and harboring grudges (anger-in), p < .001, η2 = .035, fewer thoughts of self-control, p < .05, η2 = .015, and attempts to control their angry feelings (anger-control-in), p < .05, η2 = .016, and behavior (anger-control-out), p < .001, η2 = .054. Gender was not associated with trait anger or anger problem recognition. Findings were discussed in terms of State-Trait Theory and implications for anger interventions (AU)

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Validez de la Escala de Catastrofización del Dolor / Validity of the Pain Catastrophizing Scale

La estructura de tres dimensiones de la Escala de Catastrofización del Dolor (PCS), que incluye la rumia cognitiva, la magnificación y la desesperanza, se ha estudiado en diferentes poblaciones. Sin embargo, dadas las altas correlaciones entre ellas, se ha cuestionado la multidimensionalidad del constructo y se ha planteado como un proceso de segundo orden que engloba los tres procesos de primer orden. El propósito de este estudio fue someter a prueba el modelo de una dimensión de segundo orden en amputados. Asimismo, se exploró la consistencia interna y la relación de la PCS con una escala visual analógica (VAS) para dolor, para inquirir en su convergencia. Participó un total de 135 amputados. El análisis factorial confirmatorio mostró buen ajuste al modelo de un factor de segundo orden. Un coeficiente alfa de Cronbach de .94 se obtuvo, lo que permite confiar en la PCS como una medida válida y confiable. Además, la catastrofización del dolor correlacionó de manera positiva con el dolor...

The three-factor structure of the Pain Catastrophizing Scale (PCS), which comprises the dimensions of rumination, magnification and helplessness, has been studied in diverse populations. However, since they strongly correlate, the multidimensional nature of the construct has been questioned and alternatively proposed as a second order process, encompassing the three primary dimensions. The purpose of this study was to test the second order factor model in amputees. Likewise, PCS internal consistency was explored, as well as the relationship between the PCS and a visual analog scale (VAS) for pain, so as to inquire into its convergent validity. 135 amputees participated in the study. According to CFA, the model yielded a good fit to the data. Cronbach’s alpha was .94, which allows for the appraisal of the PCS as a reliable measure. Also, the association between catastrophic thinking about pain and pain was corroborated...

Escala de Prácticas Parentales para Niños / Escala de Práticas Parentais para Crianças / Parental Practices Scale for Children

Confirmatory factor analysis conducted in a sample of 706 children 7 to 16 years of age, 354 girls and 352 boys, revealed a 5-factor solution (Rejection, Corporal Punishment, Support, Responsiveness, Warmth). Results supported the measurement model of the Parental Practices Scale for Children, which evaluates children's perception of parental practices associated to offspring emotional adjustment. This finding was replicated in a second study (N=233, 126 girls and 107 boys). The measure demonstrated good internal consistency, and was further supported by convergent validity with an instrument built with a similar objective. The measurement model supported by results of both studies is consistent with previous findings.

El análisis factorial confirmatorio realizado en una muestra de 706 niños entre 7 y 16 años, 354 niñas y 352 niños, reveló una solución de 5 factores (Rechazo, Castigo Corporal, Apoyo, Receptividad y Calidez). Los resultados apoyaron el modelo de medida de la Escala de Prácticas Parentales para Niños que evalúa su percepción respecto a dichas prácticas asociadas con el ajuste emocional infantil. Este hallazgo se repitió en un segundo estudio (N=233, 126 niñas y 107 niños). La medida mostró buena coherencia interna, así como validez convergente con un instrumento construido para un objetivo similar. El modelo de medida, apoyado por los resultados de ambos estudios, es coherente con hallazgos previos.

A análise fatorial confirmatória realizada em uma amostra de 706 crianças entre 7 e 16 anos (354 meninas e 352 meninos) revelou uma solução de 5 fatores (Recusa, Castigo Corporal, Apoio, Receptividade e Calidez). Os resultados apoiaram o modelo de medida da Escala de Práticas Parentais para Crianças que avalia sua percepção a respeito dessas práticas associadas ao ajuste emocional infantil. Esta descoberta se repetiu em um segundo estudo (N=233, 126 meninas e 107 meninos). A medida mostrou boa coerência interna, assim como validade convergente com um instrumento construído para um objetivo similar. O modelo de medida, apoiado pelos resultados de ambos os estudos é coerente com descobertas prévias.

El inventario de depresión de Beck: su validez en población adolescente / The Beck depression inventory: its validity in adolescent population

El inventario de depresión de Beck, IA (BDI-IA), ha demostrado buenas propiedades psicométricas durante los últimos cuarenta años. El propósito de este estudio fue evaluar la estructura factorial y las propiedades psicométricas del BDI-IA para adolescentes mexicanos. Participó un total de 385 adolescentes en dos muestras (comunidad general, pacientes psiquiátricos externos con y sin trastorno depresivo). Los participantes completaron el BDI-IA y una batería de instrumentos para medir constructos relacionados. El AFE mostró una solución de dos factores: el cognitivo-afectivo y el somático. El AFC indicó un ajuste aceptable del modelo propuesto por Beck. El BDI-IA mostró un alfa = .92, y mantuvo una relación significativa con medidas de afrontamiento evitativo, respuesta de rumia y ansiedad. Asimismo, mostró buena sensibilidad y especificidad para discriminar entre deprimidos y no deprimidos. El BDI-IA es una medida válida y confiable de los síntomas depresivos en adolescentes mexicanos de población clínica y no clínica.

The Beck depression inventory, IA (BDI-IA) has been shown to have good psychometric properties for the past forty years. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the factor structure and provide evidence of the psychometric properties of the BDI-IA for mexican adolescents. Three hundred eighty five adolescents in two samples (general community, psychiatric outpatients with and without major depressive disorders) completed the BDI-IA and a battery of measures of related constructs. The EFA showed a two-factor solution: the cognitive-affective one, and the Somatic one. The CFA indicated an acceptable fit of Beck's model. The BDI-IA showed an alpha = .92, and maintained a significant relationship with avoidance coping, ruminative response and anxiety measures. As well, the BDI-IA showed good sensitivity and specificity to discriminate between depressed and non-depressed individuals. The BDI-IA is a valid and reliable measure of depressive symptoms in Mexican adolescents of clinical and non-clinical populations.

High and low trait anger, and the recognition of anger problems.

This study compared three groups of people: (a) high trait anger individuals who recognized personal anger problems (HR); (b) high trait anger individuals who did not recognize personal anger problems (HNR); and (c) low trait anger individuals not reporting personal anger problems (LNR). Compared to LNR participants, HR and HNR groups reported more anger-out (i.e., outward negative expression of anger such as arguing with others), anger-in (i.e., anger suppression and harboring grudges), greater desire to use and actual use of physically aggressive anger expression (e.g., pushing or shoving someone), and less anger control-in (i.e., emotionally focused strategies to lower anger such as relaxation) and anger control-out (i.e., behaviorally focused strategies such as being patient with others). HR individuals reported more trait anger (i.e., higher propensity to experience anger) and less anger control-out than the HNR group. Gender did not relate to the recognition of anger problems. Findings were discussed with regard to theory and clinical implications.

High and low trait anger, and the recognition of anger problems

This study compared three groups of people: (a) high trait anger individuals who recognized personal anger problems (HR); (b) high trait anger individuals who did not recognize personal anger problems (HNR); and (c) low trait anger individuals not reporting personal anger problems (LNR). Compared to LNR participants, HR and HNR groups reported more anger-out (i.e., outward negative expression of anger such as arguing with others), anger-in (i.e., anger suppression and harboring grudges), greater desire to use and actual use of physically aggressive anger expression (e.g., pushing or shoving someone), and less anger control-in (i.e., emotionally focused strategies to lower anger such as relaxation) and anger control-out (i.e., behaviorally focused strategies such as being patient with others). HR individuals reported more trait anger (i.e., higher propensity to experience anger) and less anger control-out than the HNR group. Gender did not relate to the recognition of anger problems. Findings were discussed with regard to theory and clinical implications (AU)

Esta investigación comparó tres grupos de personas: (a) individuos con alta ira rasgo que reconocieron tener problemas de ira (AR); (b) individuos con alta ira rasgo que no reconocieron tener problemas personales de ira (ANR); y (c) individuos con baja ira rasgo que informaron no tener problemas de ira (BNR). En comparación con los participantes BNR, los grupos AR y ANR tuvieron mayor ira-externa (i.e., manifestar negativamente la ira como discutir con otros), ira-interna (i.e., contener la ira y guardar rencores), mayor deseo de usar y emplear en los hechos expresiones físico agresivas de ira (e.g., empujar a alguien), menor control-interno (i.e., estrategias enfocadas en la emoción para disminuir la ira, tal como la relajación) y menor control-externo (i.e., estrategias enfocadas conductualmente como ser paciente con otros). Los individuos AR tuvieron más ira rasgo (i.e., mayor tendencia a sentir ira) y menor controlexterno que el grupo ANR. El género no se relacionó con el reconocimiento de problemas de ira. Los hallazgos se discuten con respecto a implicaciones clínicas y teóricas (AU)

La Prueba de Autoestima para Adolescentes / The self-esteem test for adolescents

El presente estudio se propuso indagar sobre la validez de constructo de la adaptación a la Prueba de Autoestima para Adolescentes (PAA) y actualizar los parámetros psicométricos resultantes de estudios anteriores. 1581 estudiantes de ambos sexos (850 mujeres y 731 hombres) de una institución pública de educación media superior de la Ciudad de México, respondieron el instrumento. Mediante el empleo de la metodología de validez cruzada se determinó que el modelo de medida que subyace a la PAA ajustó satisfactoriamente, lo que confirma una estructura de cuatro factores: Cogniciones sobre sí mismo, Cogniciones de competencia, Relación familiar y Enojo. Los hallazgos del presente estudio se suman a los datos generados en torno a la validez de contenido, de criterio y de constructo de la PAA.

The present study intended to explore construct validity of the Self-esteem Test for Adolescents and update psychometric properties found in previous studies. 1581 Mexican students (850 women and 731 men) of a public high school in Mexico City responded to the scale. The sample was split randomly in half. EFA was applied using one sample´s data, and CFA to the other sample´s data. The model, assumed to underlie responses to the Self-esteem Test for Adolescents, satisfactorily fit the data, confirming a structure of 4 factors: self-cognitions, competence cognitions, family relations and rage. Results of the present study corroborate previous data concerning content, criterion-related and construct validity of the SelfesteemTest for Adolescents.

The Impact of Perceived Therapist Characteristics on Patients Decision to Return or Not Return for More Sessions

The initial contact with the patient is a crucial element in determining whether he/she will return to therapy. Patients often make their first impressions of their therapists after the intake interview, and then decide if they will return (or not) for more sessions. However, the decision made by patients has not been fully explored with regard to the characteris- tics they perceived in their therapists. This study compared two groups of patients: Those who decided to return to sessions after the intake interview, and those who opted not to return. One hundred and seventy three patients (Mean age= 26.09 years, SD= 9.75) par- ticipated in the study. They responded to an instrument designed to assess the extent to which a patient perceives positive qualities in their therapist (e.g., expert, attractive, and trustworthy). As a result, at the end of the intake interview 141 patients decided to return (DR), and 32 decided not to return (DNR). DR patients perceived more positive qualities in their therapists and attended a greater number of sessions (Median= 10) compared to DNR patients, who attended less sessions (Median = 2). Sex of the patient not related to the decision to return after the intake interview (AU)

El contacto inicial con el paciente es importante para determinar si regresará a terapia. Después de la entrevista inicial los pacientes ya tienen una primera impresión de su tera- peuta, y entonces deciden si regresarán (o no) a más sesiones. Sin embargo, la decisión que toman los pacientes no ha sido ampliamente estudiada con respecto a las características que percibieron en sus terapeutas. Esta investigación comparó dos grupos de pacientes: los que deciden regresar versus los que deciden no regresar después de la entrevista inicial. Participaron 173 pacientes (Media edad= 26,09 años, DT= 9,75) que respondieron una escala para evaluar el grado en que percibieron a su terapeuta con características positivas (e.g., experto, atractivo y confiable). Como resultado, al final de la entrevista inicial 141 pacientes decidieron regresar (DR) y 32 decidieron no regresar (DNR). Los pacientes DR percibieron a su terapeuta con más características positivas y asistieron un mayor número de sesiones (Mediana= 10) en comparación con los pacientes DNR, quienes asistieron menos veces (Mediana= 2). El sexo del paciente no se relacionó con la decisión de regresar (AU)

Versión en español de la Escala de Ansiedad para Niños de Spence (SCAS) / Spanish version of the Spence Children's Anxiety Scale (SCAS)

Quinientos cincuenta y cuatro niños de población general, de 8 a 12 años, respondieron a la Escala de Ansiedad para Niños de Spence en español (SCAS), al ITA-UNAM, que mide ansiedad y al CES-D, que mide depresión. Se investigó si se confirmaba el modelo estructural de la SCAS hallado por Spence. Mediante análisis confirmatorio, se probaron dos modelos: uno de 38 ítems y otro de 32 ítems, ambos con 6 factores relacionados, englobados bajo un factor de orden superior de ansiedad general. El modelo de 38 ítems se ajustó razonablemente, confirmando el encontrado por Spence. Pero, el modelo de 32 ítems ajustó mejor. Ambos coinciden con los trastornos de ansiedad más comunes clasificados por el DSM-IV-R. Los análisis psicométricos adicionales refuerzan la validez de constructo de la SCAS y muestran una consistencia interna aceptable.

Five hundred and fifty four school children, 8 to 12 years of age, completed the Spanish version of the Spence Children's Anxiety Scale (SCAS), the ITA-UNAM, which measures anxiety in children, and the CES-D measuring depression. The study investigated the structural model of the SCAS found by Spence. Two models were tested using confirmatory factor analysis: one 38-item and a second 32-item model, both involving 6 related first-order factors loading in a higher-order factor. The 38-item model provided a reasonably good fit, confirming the one reported by Spence. However, the second model provided the best fit of the data. Both models coincide with the most common anxiety disorders classified by the DSM-IV-TR. Further psychometric analyses reinforced construct validity of the SCAS and showed acceptable internal consistency.

La versión en español de la Escala Cognitivo-Conductual de Evitación (CBAS) / The Spanish version of the Cognitive-Behavioral Avoidance Scale (CBAS)

Este estudio se propuso evaluar las propiedades psicométricas, validez de constructo y consistencia interna, de la Escala de Evitación Cognitivo-Conductual (CBAS), propuesta originalmente en inglés por Ottenbreit y Dobson (2004). Además pretendía indagar si se confirmaba el modelo estructural hallado por estos autores. 340 estudiantes de ambos sexos (60 hombres y 280 mujeres) de una universidad pública mexicana completaron la CBAS, la Escala de Respuesta de Rumia y al Inventario de Depresión de Beck. Mediante análisis confirmatorio, se confirmó el modelo de afrontamiento de evitación encontrado en estudiantes canadienses con una estructura de cuatro factores relacionados: Conductual/social (CondS), Conductual/no social (CondNS), Cognitivo/social (CogS) y Cognitivo/no social (CogNS), que ajustó satisfactoriamente. Los datos sugieren también la validez de constructo y consistencia interna de la CBAS.

The aim of the present study was to evaluate the psychometric properties, construct validity and internal consistency, of the Spanish version of the Cognitive-Behavioral Avoidance Scale (CBAS), proposed originally in English by Ottenbreit and Dobson (2004). Also, it intended to test if the structural model found by these authors was confirmed. 340 students of a Mexican public university, 60 men and 280 women, completed the CBAS, the Ruminative Response Scale and the Beck Depression Inventory. Using confirmatory factor analysis, the avoidance coping model originally found in Canadian students fit the data, coinciding with the structure of 4 correlated factors: Behavioral Social, Behavioral Nonsocial, Cognitive Social and Cognitive Nonsocial. Construct validity and acceptable internal consistency of the CBAS were also demonstrated.

Dificultades en la evaluación y diagnóstico del autismo: Una discusión / Difficulties in assessing and measuring autism: A discussion

The detection of autism is very important because the lack of recognition of this disorder has elevated costs for the families, health care and education providers. Diagnosis is made frequently four or five years after parents notice the first signs. The reasons for this delay are many, but a common one is the lack of recognition of key symptoms that can lead to a more complex diagnosis assessment. Another reason is that screening and diagnostic instruments are not well known by primary caregivers in health and education systems, as these professionals are the first to hear parents' concerns. Moreover the instruments are not well known because the cost of acquiring them and receiving formal training is very high. The need to make comparable assumptions of this complex disorder makes it important to use the same instruments as other countries. Growing efforts for an early recognition have been made in recent years because early intervention programs benefit children with autism. In the last decade, important advances in the design of diagnostic and screening instruments have been made. These tools have primarily been used for clinical, epidemiological or research uses. In some countries their use has become routine in schools, leading to better detection and increasing prevalence rates of autism. Misdiagnosis is not uncommon in autism. Almost 60% of children with Asperger disorder first receive an erroneous diagnosis of attention deficit disorder, oppositionistic or bipolar disorder. Autism presents with a bizarre clinical picture during the years in which many thought it was untestable. Gradual characterization of behaviors and studying different aspects of the symptomatology had led to a better comprehension and descriptions. Most authors have incorporated this knowledge to design reliable instruments. The most common behaviors explored are: protodeclarative pointing, joint attention, repetitive/ stereotyped movements and absence of characteristic symbolic play. This target behavior can be explored through the diverse rating scales and interviews. The instruments are very diverse and varing form. There are rating scales for parents to record their children symptoms and observation schedules to be completed by a clinician or trained professional for that purpose. The best approach is to combine modalities to include as much information as possible. CHAT (Checklist for Autism in Toddlers) is a brief screening instrument intended to detect autism in toddlers. The first part consists of nine questions for parents to complete, while the second part is an observation schedule with five brief age-appropriate interactions with the children. This instrument is an important antecedent of more sophisticated and expanded play observation schedules. Checklist for Autism in Toddlers Modified (CHAT M) is a modified version which consists of an expansion of the parent questionnaire by eliminating the observational section. The Childhood Autism Rating Scale (CARS) is another instrument which assesses the severity of autism. This instrument is rated by clinicians or by trained observers. CARS was designed before DSM IV criteria were published so it does not contain an algorithm to distinguish between different developmental problems. In spite of this limitation, it is the most used rating scale for autism diagnosis. The Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL/1.5-5) is a broad band rating scale which evaluates psychopathology of children between 18 months and five years old. It has a DSM oriented subscale to evaluate developmental problems such as autism or Asperger disorder. It also contains a withdrawn subscale which has proven to be useful as demonstrated by some studies done with the CBCL/4-18. This instrument also allows assessing other associated problems common in autistic children such as attention problems, depression and anxiety. The Language Developmental Survey (LDS) associated to this rating scale, gives the opportunity to screen vocabulary for the identification of language delays, which are common in children with pervasive developmental disorders. It was necessary to have more structured instruments to diagnose autism and not only for screening purposes, so in 1989 the first diagnostic interview was published. The instrument has gone through an extensive review and creative process which has led to the most important tools for diagnosing autism in adults and children. The Autism Diagnostic Interview (ADI) was published in 1989 and correlated to the ICD-10 definition of autism. The original ADI was intended primarily for research purposes, providing behavioral assessment for subjects with a chronological age of at least five years and a mental age of at least two years. The ADI explores three key domains defining autism: (1) reciprocal social interaction, (2) communication and language, and (3) repetitive, stereotyped behaviors. The Autism Diagnostic Interview Revised ADI-R is a semi/ standardizer interview shorter than the ADI, which has been developed for clinical use. It is more appropriate for younger children than the ADI. The ADI-R takes from 2 to 3 hours to administer and can be used with children as young as two years of age (with a mental age greater than 18 months). It explores information about the child functioning in the present and the past. It contains an algorithm based on DSM criteria for autistic disorder, and allows for distinguishing between autistic disorder and non autistic disorder. Pre Linguistic Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS-PL) is a modified version of the ADOS used to diagnose young children (under the age of six years) who are not yet using phrase speech. It is a semi-structured assessment of play, interaction, and social communication and takes about 30 minutes for a trained clinician to administer. The Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule-Generic (ADOS-G) is a standardized play observation schedule. Through structured play materials and activities promoted by the examiner, social interactions are rated for common autistic features like joint attention, protodeclarative pointing, quality of reciprocal social interaction and symbolic play. Different modules are available from one to four, with specified criteria to match the participants' developmental and language level. It contains an algorithm related to the DSM IV domains of an Autistic Disorder or PDD-NOS. The ADI, ADI/R, ADOS PL, and ADOS G are considered the gold standards for autism diagnosis. There are important reliable instruments for diagnosing autism but extensive training is needed to obtain useful diagnostic information. Since these instruments are very recent, they have not been validated in some countries and neither their cultural bias has been investigated. It is not enough to assess autistic symptoms only for diagnostic purposes; patients need further evaluation to determine their psychosocial functioning, cognitive abilities, and language delay or deviations. The information from these assessments is very important for planning well designed interventions. Even though there is a growing interest in perfecting these modern instruments, diagnosis cannot rely exclusively on them. They are important tools to facilitate the diagnosis, but broader assessment should be pursued. It is important to validate and culturally adapt these instruments so different countries can utilize the same tools and research results can be comparable. In the future more rating scales, observation schedules and diagnostic interviews will be developed for assessing Asperger disorder, to be used in genetic studies, for assessing broad band syndromes. Better cognitive measures will be necessary to evaluate psychosocial impact. But this growing specialization will increase costs so it is important to develop briefer and more cost-effective methods to evaluate persons with autism. The availability of these tools will guarantee early diagnosis and treatment not only for research purposes but for identification in the community.

La detección del autismo en México es muy importante ya que la falta de reconocimiento de este trastorno tiene costos muy elevados para las familias y los prestadores de servicios de salud y educación. Muy a menudo el diagnóstico de autismo se realiza cuatro o cinco años después de que los padres observan los primeros síntomas. Las razones para este reconocimiento tardío son diversas; pero una de las principales es la falta de identificación de síntomas clave que obliguen a una evaluación diagnóstica en forma. Otro motivo es que en nuestro país son poco conocidos los instrumentos de tamizaje y diagnóstico por parte de los profesionistas primarios como maestros y médicos familiares, quienes son los primeros en escuchar las quejas y preocupaciones de los padres. Aun en contextos más especializados, estas herramientas son poco conocidas pues su adquisición y aplicación es un proceso complejo y costoso que a menudo debe realizar el profesionista por su cuenta. A pesar de estos inconvenientes, en años recientes se han realizado grandes esfuerzos para el reconocimiento del autismo puesto que hay evidencias de que las intervenciones tempranas mejoran el pronóstico en estos niños. En la última década se han realizado avances muy importantes en el diseño de instrumentos de diagnóstico y tamizaje, a los que se han utilizado con propósitos de investigación clínica y epidemiológica. En algunos países su uso se ha vuelto una rutina en las escuelas y se ha logrado una mayor detección de autismo por lo que se han elevado las tasas de prevalencia. Los instrumentos son muy diversos, pueden ser listas de autoinforme dirigidos a los padres para que registren los síntomas de los niños, o cédulas de observación para ser completadas por el clínico o el personal entrenado para tal propósito. Lo mejor es el uso mixto de instrumentos para obtener la mayor cantidad de información posible como es el caso del CHAT que incluye una sección de interrogatorio y otra sección de observación con actividades que el niño debe desarrollar. Este instrumento es precursor de actividades sencillas y creativas con un componente lúdico, diseñadas con el propósito de evaluar al niño preescolar. Hoy este es un importante antecedente de otros instrumentos más elaborados. El cuestionario para el autismo en niños preescolares modificado CHAT M es una versión modificada del el cuestionario para el autismo en niños preescolares (CHAT) que consiste en una expansión de la sección de interrogatorio para el padre, con un formato de autoinforme que parte de la eliminación de la sección de observación. Otros instrumentos miden la gravedad del autismo como la Escala de Evaluación de Autismo Infantil (CARS), dirigida al clínico que evalúa la intensidad del autismo. La lista de síntomas del niño de 1.5-5 (CBCL/1.5-5) es un instrumento de banda ancha que evalúa la psicopatología general en niños con edad entre 18 meses y cinco años; contiene una subescala de problemas del desarrollo que sirve como tamizaje para evaluar el autismo y el trastorno por Asperger con base en los criterios del DSM. Se han diseñado y se han perfeccionando paulatinamente varias entrevistas de diagnóstico. La entrevista de diagnóstico de autismo (ADI), la entrevista de diagnostico para el autismo revisada (ADI-R), la cédula prelingüística genérica de observación para el autismo (ADOS PL), y la cédula de observación genérica para el autismo (ADOS G) son escalas consideradas standard de oro para el diagnóstico del autismo. Conforme se han mejorado las propiedades psicométricas, de los instrumentos, éstos también se han ajustado para cubrir las necesidades de evaluación de los pacientes autistas con un amplio rango de edad, destreza verbal y cognitiva. Como resultado, podemos contar con instrumentos confiables y adecuados para una población con necesidades muy diversas; estas herramientas nos han demostrado que un constructo tan complejo y amplio como el autismo se puede medir. En este artículo se presenta una breve revisión de la evolución histórica de la clasificación acorde a los criterios del DSM y a la descripción de los principales instrumentos de diagnóstico, y los datos de su validez y confiabilidad.

Variables que inciden en el rendimiento académico de adolescentes mexicanos / Variables that influence academic achievement in Mexican adolescents

The aim of the present study was to explore to what extent personal variables contribute to academic achievement of preparatory school students. 1581 students, between 15 and 23 years of age, attending 9 campuses of a public preparatory school in Mexico City, participated in the study. They responded to several self-report questionnaires on self-esteem, assertiveness, school adjustment, motivation, study behavior and substance use. Regression analysis provided information on the relative contribution of motivation, study skills and substance use on academic achievement, which was based on the students' GPA. Also, gender differences were found on several dimensions, showing girls better academic achievement, school adjustment, motivation, study skills and poorer self-esteem than boys.

El propósito del presente estudio fue explorar en qué medida algunas variables personales predicen el rendimiento académico de estudiantes de bachillerato. Participaron 1581 estudiantes de una institución pública de educación media superior en la Ciudad de México, con edades que fluctuaban entre los 15 y los 23 años, quienes respondieron a instrumentos de autoinforme sobre autoestima, asertividad, escolar, establecimiento de metas, actividades de estudio y consumo de sustancias. Un análisis de regresión múltiple reveló la contribución relativa de la motivación, las habilidades de estudio y el uso de sustancias sobre el rendimiento académico, basado éste en el promedio de calificaciones escolares. Se apreciaron diferencias entre sexos en varias dimensiones, indicando que las mujeres referían mejor rendimiento académico, escolar, motivación, habilidades de estudio y peor autoestima que los hombres.

Datos psicométricos del EMBU-I "Mis memorias de crianza" como indicador de la percepción de crianza en una muestra de adolescentes de la Ciudad de México

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SUMMARY Introduction: Childrearing or parenting is the assumption of responsibility for the emotional, social and physical growth and development of a child. Research literature has identified three related components commonly associated to rearing or parenting: a) spontaneous emotions and attitudes that are non-goal directed parental behaviors such as gestures, changes in the tone of voice, temperamental bursts, body language; b) specific goal-directed parental practices, which are better understood in the context of a socialization domain (academic achievement, peer cooperation), and c) the value system and beliefs of parents related to socialization goals of their children. Based on sound empirical data, there is no doubt about the impact of child-rearing environments on a wide variety of outcomes, ranging from normal variations of adaptive functioning and school success to an array of psychopathological results such as drug abuse, aggressive behavior, and anxiety in children and adolescents. During adolescence, parenting implies the transformation of the relationships between parents and children. This is a critical transition period in which the emerging social demands turn it into a particularly vulnerable period of life. Psychological distress that arises in adolescents may threaten their mental health on a medium and long term-basis. Based on an exhaustive literature study related to the parentchild relationship and the shared family environment, Repetti et al. suggest that conflict, lack of cohesion and organization, as well as unsupportive, cold and neglectful environments, were characteristic of families in risk of developing physical and mental problems. Adolescent studies provided evidence related to alcohol and drugs abuse, involvement in pregnancy, aggressive behaviour and delinquency as outcomes for children from families lacking cohesion and orderliness, as well as emotional warmth, support and involvement in parenting. Thus, it is important to rely on instruments that measure parenting and whose dimensions have proven to be relevant to the outcomes evaluated. One empirically evaluated instrument, in terms of internal consistency, construct validity, and convergent and divergent validity in transcultural context, is the Egna Minnen Betraffande Uppfostran-My memories of upbringing (EMBU). It has been extensively used and adapted in more than 25 countries, including Spanish-speaking populations from Guatemala, Venezuela and Spain. Factor analyses have revealed four factors (emotional warmth, rejection, control/overprotection and favouring subject), and multiple studies have documented the validity, reliability and cross-national transferability of the EMBU. Criticism regarding the retrospective nature of the EMBU has been overcome by designs with younger samples confirming its cross-stability for all scales except favouritism scale. There is a lack of instruments measuring parenting in Spanishspeaking countries. It is imperative to evaluate parental perceptions with adolescents as the source of information. There is, therefore, a need to empirically evaluate a reliable and valid parenting measurement, whose relational nature dimensions (warmth/rejection, control) can also be compared with those found in other countries. The purpose of the present study was to explore the psychometric properties of the EMBU-I in a sample of Mexican adolescents. In particular, its aim was to test the reliability (internal consistency), the congruency of the dimensions for fathers and mothers and within the scales comprising the EMBU, and its convergent and divergent validity. Method: Seven hundred seventy five adolescents, with a mean age of 13.81 years, from two secondary schools, one public and one private, participated in the study. Instruments: EMBU-C, parental involvement in studies scale, and the cohesion, conflict and organization scales from the FES. All of them showed reliability values above .50. Results: Emotional warmth, rejection, and control showed evidence of good internal consistency (Cronbach's alphas above or equal .65), except favoritism, in agreement with previous studies. Correlation between both scales, for father and mother (emotional warmth, rejection and control) was positive and high. Negative correlations were found between emotional warmth and rejection, as expect. Interestingly, perception of father control positively correlated with warmth, whereas perception of mother control was higher loaded on rejection than in warmth. The multiple correlation analysis of each scale of the EMBU and the other instruments were as follows: warmth in both parents correlated positively with organization and cohesion in family and rejection, again in both parents, also correlated with conflict. Warmth and control for father, as well as for mother, correlated with parental involvement in studies, but stronger correlations were documented in the case of perception of father's involvement. For mothers, cohesion and organization showed a tendency to correlate higher with involvement in studies. Results support the convergent validity of the scales. Evidence for the divergent validation was provided through the negative correlations found between warmth and conflict. This was also true for cohesion and organization, with regard to rejection. As expected, rejection also showed a negative correlation with parental involvement in studies. In agreement with other studies, the present study corroborates internal consistency in Mexican adolescents, as well as convergent and divergent validity of the EMBU-C scales of emotional warmth, rejection and control. A finding of this study was the different correlation tendency found between the dimension of control for fathers and mothers, suggesting that control in fathers is perceived more as warmth than rejection, in contrast to other studies. Also warmth and control, again in the fathers' case, correlated higher with involvement in studies. This finding is in agreement with Youniss and Smollar, whose findings suggest a differential perception of fathers and mothers, especially in early adolescence. Mexican boys and girls tend to perceive fathers with more deference and as advisors or instructors. Although the risky families' construct has a wider perspective, it is also important to evaluate separately the family unit with regard to the adolescent-parent relationship because intervention strategies are different. According to adolescent perception, parenting dimensions related to emotional climate are notably related to other parental components, such as parental involvement in school or family cohesion and organization. Psychometric properties of EMBU-C were acceptable in terms of reliability and validity. It proved to be a useful tool for future studies, purported to evaluate adolescent perception of parental childrearing. Future studies should provide further data on test-retest reliability, confirmatory factor analyses testing the three factor resolution found in previous studies and on its convergent validity. Limitations of the present study arise from the sample of students and its socioeconomic or demographic restrictions. Future studies could overcome the fact that data come only from one source, i.e., children. Concurrent validity comparing EMBU-C with other parenting indicators is also needed.